Sabtu, 26 Oktober 2013

TEPAT MALAM INI, LIMA TAHUN YANG LALU


Gelinding waktu menghantar dua hati sampai disini, saat aku dan kamu menjadi kita. Kita yang kadang sama dan berbeda, yang kadang saling bergandeng dan berpisah, yang kadang penuh gairah lalu dingin, yang kadang merindu dan melupa, yang kadang yakin dan ragu, yang kadang mencinta dan membenci.

Kita yang kini masih berwujud satu keinginan dan harapan, meski dengan langkah berbeda namun akhirnya dapat tiba pada satu titik dalam waktu bersamaan. Dan disinilah kita, setidaknya untuk saat ini, menyesaki ruang - ruang tahun dengan berbagai cerita dari pengalaman sejak lima tahun lalu.

Sudah cukupkah perjalanan ini menjadikan kita sebagai tujuan?
Ataukah jembatan yang dibangun dari derap - derap langkah menuju kita masih rapuh?
Berapa lama lagi waktu untuk kita berjalan?
Yakinkah bahwa yang di depan itu, yang indah itu untuk kita? Sementara setiap perjalanan tak pernah menajanjikan kepastian tujuan terindah bagi siapa saja. Kita mungkin dapat merupa keindahan itu sendiri, tapi kita pun dapat dilesapkan oleh apa saja, lalu kita tak akan berarti apa-apa melainkan hanyalah sebuah perjalanan menuju entah.

Apa sebenarnya yang dibutuhkan kita?
Waktu? Keyakinan? Restu? Kesempatan? Takdir?

Entahlah, karena kita adalah gagasan yang cukup sulit ditebak. Pada kenyataannya kita bukan hanya perkara dua pribadi, akan selalu ada mereka yang turut menghiasi lukisan hati kita dengan seribu satu macam warna, pasti ada Dia, sutradara dibalik tiap penggal episode cerita tentang kita.

Sekali lagi, waktu beranjak, menunjuk saat dimana aku dan kamu bersepakat menjadi kita. Moment yang mungkin hanya diingat dan tanpa sengaja dirayakan oleh kita saja. Kebahagiaan dan kesedihan melebur dalam kenangan seiring terlingkarnya satu simbol angka yang berderet runtun pada lembar kalender yang akan selalu berganti. Dan, cerita baru dari episode lain dimulai lagi setelah ujung pena menarik lingkar pada tepian angka yang menggenapkan setahun demi setahun usianya.

Kita, mungkin masih akan terus berjalan berjalan menuju satu tanpa ingin berspekulasi bahwa jalan di depan bisa saja bercabang, tak ada pilihan lain selain menyusuri masing-masing jalan dengan ayunan kaki gontai berteman nelangsa.

Saat ini, kita masih menjadi rumah tempat hatiku dan hatimu pulang. Kita, masih menjadi tempat yang paling nyaman untuk sejenak menarik diri dari fatamorgana, meski kita sendiri masih merupa siluet berwarna gamang.

Kita seolah keajaiban kecil yang hanya dimengerti oleh kita saja, saat amarah yang membuncah berangsunr meredah, dan kesedihan yang menyesakkan berangsur melegakan, atau saat kebahagian menjadi lengkap dalam kesederhanaan. Semua akan baik-baik saja saat mataku dan matamu bertatut memandang kearah kita.

Kita seperti silent hug, menenangkan dalam hening, bijak dalam diam, damai dalam senyap.

Hingga suatu ketika...Airmataku dan peluhmu berubah wujud menjadi sebuah doa, semoga kita, adalah selamanya.

Jumat, 18 Oktober 2013

Linguistic Forms and Functions



CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A.    Background
Throughout life, man can hardly be separated from the communication events. In humans, it can communicate as a means of expressing ideas, ideas content of thought, intent, purposes, desire, explanation, and so on. Means the most important and vital to meet these needs is the language. Thus, it can be said that the most important function of language is a means of communication.
Language studies should ideally cover all aspect and components of language in accordance with the fact that there is language usage. The study of language which is only based on linguistic and grammatical language approach perceived by experts has limitations, especially regarding the suitability of the use of language to reality and express language issue to the grammatical level. In fact, an aspect of language form of discourse is important when compared with other aspects of language. Because it is important to recognize what meanings are communicated to us in language and which meaning we derive from the contexts in which language is used. Because it is important to distinguish between linguistic meanings, what is communicated by particular pieces of language, and utterance meaning, what a certain individual meant by saying such-and-such in a particular place, at a particular time, and to certain other individuals. The utterance “our visit to the factory was a wonderful experience” may be spoken as a joke or sarcastically, or as a straightforward report, among other possibilities. The sentence our visit to the factory was a wonderful experience has none of these meaning in itself or, to put it differently, it has potentially any of these meaning. An utterance is often part of a larger discourse-a conversation, a formal lecture, a poem, a short story, a business letter, or a love letter, among other possibilities. A spoken discourse is any act of speech that occurs in a given place and during a given period of time. A written discourse may be the record of something that has been spoken, or it may originate for the purpose of being performed aloud, like a play or speech or it may exist without ever having been spoken or intended to be spoken, like most articles and books. The linguists’ context of an utterance can make a difference, as well as the social context.
This is based on the discourse analysis is an analysis of the language used. Discourse analysis cannot be limited to the description of the kind of language that is bound to the purpose or function of which is designed to use the forms in human affairs. Discussion about the function of language linguistics produce order terms are vague terms, so that the discussion in this paper has centered on the function of language as transactional and interactional. Transactional function is a function of language to express the ‘contents’. Interactional function of language is a function involved in expressing social relation and personal attitudes.
B.     Problem Statement
Based on the above background, the formulation of the problem which will be discussed in this paper are:
1.      What is the function of language?
2.      What is the definition spoken and written language?
3.      What is the difference between spoken and written language?
4.      What is the definition of sentence and utterance?
C.    The Objective
The objective of this paper is to describes:
1.      The function of language
2.      The definition spoken and written language
3.      The differences between spoken and written language
4.      The definition of sentence and utterance

CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

            The term roughly discourse, can be interpreted as the broader language of the sentence or clause or can also be interpreted as linguistic units larger than sentences, for example spoken or written text conversations.
            Actual discourse analysis, analysis of language I use, as claimed by Brown and Yule (1984) Discourse Analysis in his book “The analysis of discourse is necessarily the analysis of language in use”. Because it was not possible discourse analysis is limited to the description of linguistic forms apart from human relationships.
            Furthermore Butler (1985) adds that the study of language learning a broader pattern of the sentence (“the suprasetential patterning of language”). This coincided with the emergence of interest in learning the language, with the desire to learn what exactly we can do with language: how we use it, not only to exchange information, but to solve problems (“getting things done”) and to create and maintain social relations and others.
            The above opinion is actually derived from the idea of a well-known expert anthropologists Malinowski who was researching a tribe in the South Pacific, to the conclusion that the meaning is not a correlation between words with the object designed by the word (referent). He concluded that in order to understand the meaning of what is said; we need to know the characteristics of culture as reflected in the context of a situation in which an utterance is produced. It was later developed by Firth, a linguistic expert who argued that the meaning of the word is deeply linked to “the living process of maintaining themselves person in society” (the process of one”s life to stay afloat in the midest by the Firth of language as follows; “A way of behaving and making others ehave” ( a way to show certain behaviors and make other people behave in certain ways). According to Firth thus furher said by Coulthard (1977) a new language has meaning in the context of a particular situation (meaningful in its context of situation). An utterance ‘I am hungry’ may be said a hungry homeless in order to ask an answer to his mother who told him to instantly command sleep when he was busy watching TV. In the context of the latter’s speech was clearly intended to gain time, to have a different meaning with pragmatic spoken in the context of the first one.
A.    The Function of Language
The analysis of discourse is necessarily, the analysis of language in use. It cannot be restricted to the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or function which those forms are designed to serve in human affairs. While some linguists may concentrate on determining the formal properties of a language, the discourse analyst is committed to an investigation of what that language is used for. While the formal approach has a long tradition, manifested in innumerable volumes of grammar, the functional approach is less well documented. Attempts to provide even a general se of labels for the principal functions of language have resulted in vague, and often confusing, terminology. We will adopt only two terms to describe the major functions of language and emphasize that this division is an analytic convenience. It would be unlikely that, on any occasion, a natural language utterance would be used to fulfill only one function, to the total exclusion of the other. That function which language serves in the expression of ‘content’ we will describe as transactional, and that function involved expressing social relations and personal attitudes we will describe as interactional.
a.       The transactional view
Linguists and language philosophy recognizes that the most important function is the delivery of information. So, Lyons (in Brown, 1996:2) argues that the notion of communication is easily used to ‘feeling, moods, and attitudes’. But indicated that he would be interested primarily in the ‘delivery of factual information or deliberate proportionate.
The language used to convey ‘factual information or proportionate’ is referred to as the transactional language. Major transactional language is considered that the main of the reader ( the author) is an effective information delivery. Language used in situations such as the ‘message oriented’. Important that the speaker (writer) make what the expression (writing) it clearly. Will occur the consequences are not pleasant ( even catastrophic) in the real world if the message is not understood properly by the receiver ( Brown, 1996:2).
Based on the opinions expressed by Lyons and Brown on language functions above, it was explained that the functional of language in transactional view has a function and its used contained in the message. In this function the expression (writing) delivered with a straightforward and effective in accordance with the meaning to e conveyed and does not cause multiple interpretations of the expression (writing).
b.      The Interactional view
A large part of everyday human interaction is characterized by the use of language. If the experts in linguistics, psycholinguistics, and philosophy of language in general pay attention to the use of language to convey factual information or proportional, and sociolinguistics sociologists interested in the use of language to solidified and maintain social relationships. So, pay attention to the use of conversational language analyzer o negotiate relations role, the peer solidarity, exchange-trade turn conversation, both face-saving on the part of the speaker and the listener. For example, there are two people in a room. One of the men opened the conversation “hot room temperature”. The speech is not as provision of information, but is intended to be interwoven in a friendly and comfortable conversation. The example of an interactional function of language.
Based on the explanation above, it can be summarized that the function of language according to Brown in the grade into two, namely the transactional and interactional function. If a speech (written) that to convey information, then that language serves as transactional function. If a speech (writing intended to estalish communication / interaction / braggadocio, the language of the act as interactional language.
Discourse analysis cannot be separated from the function of language itself. For ease of analysis, Yule and Brown (1984) limits the two functions of language are:
1.      Transactional functions : the function of language which aims to reveal the content (‘the expression of content’)
2.      Interactional functions: functions that involve social relationship and attitudes of individuals.
In fact often the two functions work together. An example, if a mother advising her son, then two earlier language function go hand in hand, namely the delivery of advice and guidance itself social relationship with children.
In the transactional language, no presuppositions that what is on the minds of speakers is the efficient transfer of information. Language used in this situation-oriented message (message-oriented). The important thing here is that the person who receives the information it gets the correct information. So, the goal is clarity provided by an RT to citizens who ask the gargabe levy, or the clarity provided by a doctor when he gave instructions to a nurse about giving pills to his patient. By itself will arise that are not profitable in the transaction problem this information when such a message is not delivered perfectly understood by the person receiving the message.
Meanwhile experts’ sociolinguistics concerned with the use of language to establish and maintains social relationships. The reason is that the bulk of in-the daily human interaction is more colored by human relationships.  If there is one between two Indonesian men who do not know each other are waiting for a train at the station greet others by saying : “Why so late train, Yes” or if one of the two Americans who are not familiar with sling also said : “ Gee, it’s freezing “ This does not mean that each of Indonesian people and the Americans  were merely intended to convey information about rain delay or about the time the cold air, which of course both parties, both speakers and responders already know each other. Among these situations contained meaning that speakers want to just be polite and only want to form social relationships. However in reality, the majority of everyday conversation is one person’s opinion on what is in fron of him and in front of his audience.
B.     Spoken and Written Language
Spoken and in the next written, with a view to potential applications in language teaching. We have already stated as our ongoing concern the establishment of as accurate a picture as possible of natural discourse, in order to have this as a yardstick for judging approaches to language teaching and for evaluating what goes on in classrooms and the output of learners.
1.      Spoken language
Henry Guntur Tarin (1987:55) argues that spoken language was delivered orally, through oral media. Oral or spoken language often associated with interactive language or interactive language. According to Brown and Yule (1996) is the interactive discourse.
Variety is the spoken language said the resulting material tools (organ of speech) with the phoneme as the basic element. In spoken language, we are dealing with grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. In this diversity of language spoken, the speaker can take advantage of high or low sound pressure, facial, hand movements or gestures to express idea.
Spoken language is a vast subject, and little is known in hard statistical terms of the distribution of different types of speech in people's everyday lives.
2.      Written Language
Variety of written language is a language generated by utilizing the letter writing as a basic element. In a variety of writing, we are dealing with the procedures of writing (spelling) in addition to aspects of grammar and vocabulary. In other words, in a variety of written language, we required a complete grammatical element such as form words or sentence structure, precise word choice, spelling the use of truth, and the use of punctuation in expressing ideas.
Text types
Letters are a good example of a discourse type where the receiver is usually a specified individual or group, unlike the classroom or homework essay, which is often written for     an unknown audience, but with the overlay of knowing that the teacher lexarniner will be the pseudo-reader. Letter writing activities can therefore raise all the important questions of the relationship between discourse structure and contextual factors, as we have seen. There also appear to be cross-cultural problems concerning letters, especially business letters. Jenkins and Hinds (1987) found significant differences in orientation between American, French and Japanese business letters; the American letters in their data were generally more informal and reader-oriented, with the writer strongly projecting the reader's needs and assumed purposes. The French data were writer-oriented, with the writer intent upon protecting hidher position and remaining more formal. The Japanese texts oriented towards the mid-ground, the relationship between writer and reader. So writing is not fundamentally different from speech. While it is true that the writer usually has time to compose and think, and is not going to be interrupted by the reader bidding for a turn or saying 'SorQ, can't stop now, must rush!', all the other important factors constraining what is said and how it is said are present in writing as much as in speech.
The sentence is more obvious as a grammatical unit in writing, although certainly not in all kinds of writing: signs and notices, small ads, notes, forms, tickets, cheques, all contain frequent examples of 'non-sentences' (lists of single words, verb less clauses, etc.)
Two medium or substance in the human language used a medium of communication is disturbed by air movement and articulation marks made on a flat surface with a chisel, brush, pen, pencil and so on. Beyond this linguistic communication both ways, ie verbal and written.
Language known in Europe, but not all dialects, and the main areas in the world who has known civilization was writing and oral language. In other words, the system of writing and oral language can be identified and recognized as the “common language”. Many language are spoken only just know the system and the spread of literacy does not always lead to all languages that have writing systems. Spoken language used by a relatively small community, who live in a political group or culture group larger, often avoided. This is because the speakers are taught to read and write in the language of wider use in the area as the language of the “second” or in the language learned in school and not being taught to them since childhood ( as is the case with many non standard dialect speakers of the language.
3.      Write a word on the use of language and spoken language (spoken)
In the use of both written and spoken language is not the same, this is because the use of written and spoken language has rules of its own-alone in the use of words, vocabulary and sentence structure. Note the use of written and spoken language below:
a.       Written language
Use of tenses
1.      Vehicle that he was travelling hit a mahagony tree
2.      If cannot, you do not need to continue the work
3.      Copy of certificate must be legalized first by academic leaders
Use of vocabulary
1.      I already know their members about it
2.      They were making plans for the next exhibition
Use of sentence structure
1.      I have to say this plan to the Director
2.      “Skilled Sharpening” was attended also by the Governor of the special region of Aceh
3.      Because too many different suggestions, it gets confused to finis the job.
b.      Spoken language
Use of tenses
1.      Vehicle that he was travelling hit a mahogany tee
2.      If cannot, no need to continue the work
3.      Photocopy of diploma must be legalized by academic leaders
Use of vocabulary
1.      I already know they love about it
2.      They make a plan to exhibit again ever.
Use of sentence structure
1.      I have to convey this plan to the Director
2.      In “Sharpening Empowered” was atendded by the Governor of the special region of Aceh
3.      Beause too many different suggestionns, so he more confused to finish the job.

C.    Differences Between Writing and Speech
In 1979 Halliday (114) wrote that “spoken language is characterized by complex sentence structures with low lexical density (more clauses, but fewer high content words per clause); written language by simple sentence structures with high lexical density (more high content words per clause, but fewer clauses).”  These somewhat surprising conclusions seem not to have arisen from a systematic quantitative study of spoken and written samples, but from isolated examples.
Writing and spoken language differ in many ways. However some forms of writing are closer to speech than others, and vice versa. Below are some of the ways in which these two forms of language differ:
·         Writing is usually permanent and written texts cannot usually e changed once they have been printed or written out
Speech is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterance as they go along
·         A written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language and writing system is still understood.
Speech is usually used for immediate interactions
·         Written language tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate clauses. The punctuation and layout of written texts also have no spoken equivalent. However, some forms of written language, such as instant messages and email, are closer to spoken language.
Spoken language tends to a full of repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and interruptions, with the exception of formal speeches and other scripted forms of speech, such as new reports and scripts for plays and films.
·         Written receive no immediate feedback from their readers, except in computer-based communication. Therefore they cannot rely on context to clarify things so there is more need to explain things clearly and unambiguously than in speech, except in written correspondence between people who know one another well.
Speech is usually a dynamic interaction between two or more people. Context shared knowledge play a major role, so it is possible to leave much unsaid or indirectly implied.
·         Writes can make use of punctuation, headings, layout colours and other graphical effects in their written texts. Such things are not available in speech.
Speech can use timing, tone, volume, and timbre to add emotional context.
·         Written material can be read repeatedly and closely analyzed, and notes can be made on the writing surface. Only recorded speech can be used in this way.
·         Some grammatical constructions are only used in writing, as are some kinds of vocabulary, such as some complex chemical and legal terms.
Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly in speech. These include slang expressions, and tags like y’know, like etc.
An utterance can be defined simply as a section of spoken language, separated by pauses or silence. The specific definition of the term is hard to pin down, because some people believe it to relate to an entire spoken “turn” in conversation, while others believe the definition to be more episodic, almost the equivalent of sentences for spoken English. Regardless of the preferred definition, an utterance can be generally defined as a chunk of spoken language.
Spoken language and written language are different in many ways. The main reason for this is that spoken language is usually generated on the spot by the speaker, which means that there are frequent pauses while the speaker thinks of how to continue. These pauses are often filled with filler words such as “like” or “err….” Or silence. Conversely, written language only has grammatical pauses, such as a period or comma, to dictate when a pause should be taken. As a result of this difference, in written language, a sentencce can easily be defined as the words between the capital letter and period, but I speech, the definition is much more difficult.
D.    Sentence and Utterance
The sentence is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit, has its primary predication, actualizes define structural scheme, possesses definite intonation characters.
The sentence is an abstract theoretical entity, and a unit language. The most essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are:
a.       Its structural characteristic – subject – predicate relation (primary predication)
b.      Its semantic characteristic – it refers to some fact in the objective reality.
A simple sentence is a sentence with one predicate line. All simple sentence are dividing into
a.       Two – axis constructions
b.      One – axis constructions
Utterance is a complete unit of speech (what one speaker says). In other word, utterance is the act of expressing word (something that you say). We use term utterance to refer to complete communicative units, which may consist of single words, phrases, clause or clauses, combination spoken in context, in contrast to the term sentence which we reserve for unit consisting of at least one.
Intrinsically in activity communicate happened process to produce and comprehends utterance. In other word, in linguistic usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept become code, while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance, there are at least three factors which assist us the first is factors to relate to knowledge of the world as member of society, we have coexisted with our environment. Nature around this gives to us knowledge about world life. Some of this knowledge have the character of universal while some other is special about public where life. Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after utterance was understood or is continued with an action. If we to hear utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued, so in generally we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.








CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION


A.    Conclusion
A wide variety of language spoken and written language can be distinguished by see how to write it. If in our daily life, the variety of writing needs to pay attention to language support the rules in writing are good and true, whereas in a variety of oral language support is not necessary. Clearly spoken language variety is something that delivered orally, whereas written language variety is something that conveyed through writing, the function of language

B.     Suggestion
As we know that variety of language by the media is divided into two : a variety of oral and written language and we as a younger generation of Indonesian people should be to tell the difference, know the function of language, and sentence and utterance








REFERENCES

Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1996. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1996. Analisis Wacana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Butler, Christopher,S.1985.systemic Linguistic Theory and applications. London: Batsford Ltd
Mccarthy, Michael.1991.Discourse Analysis For language Teachers. Cambridge; Cabridge university Press









Kamis, 03 Oktober 2013

Sebuah Catatan Kisah


Akhirnya aku hanyalah manusia bodoh
Tidak lebih, tak punya dan tak perlu tahu apa-apa
Tapi indahnya, bagiku tak berujung

Dari dan untukmu kudalami kisah ini
Dan untukmu, aku bersalah
Dan untukmu, aku berdosa
Darimu, aku belajar hingga aku mengerti dan membawanya hingga aku benar-benar pulang

Kujaga semuanya agar tetap indah dan tak hilang.

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" For someone to someone "
 

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