CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background
Throughout
life, man can hardly be separated from the communication events. In humans, it
can communicate as a means of expressing ideas, ideas content of thought,
intent, purposes, desire, explanation, and so on. Means the most important and
vital to meet these needs is the language. Thus, it can be said that the most
important function of language is a means of communication.
Language
studies should ideally cover all aspect and components of language in
accordance with the fact that there is language usage. The study of language
which is only based on linguistic and grammatical language approach perceived
by experts has limitations, especially regarding the suitability of the use of
language to reality and express language issue to the grammatical level. In
fact, an aspect of language form of discourse is important when compared with
other aspects of language. Because it is important to recognize what meanings
are communicated to us in language and which meaning we derive from the
contexts in which language is used. Because it is important to distinguish
between linguistic meanings, what is communicated by particular pieces of
language, and utterance meaning, what a certain individual meant by saying
such-and-such in a particular place, at a particular time, and to certain other
individuals. The utterance “our visit to the factory was a wonderful
experience” may be spoken as a joke or sarcastically, or as a straightforward
report, among other possibilities. The sentence our visit to the factory was a
wonderful experience has none of these meaning in itself or, to put it
differently, it has potentially any of these meaning. An utterance is often
part of a larger discourse-a conversation, a formal lecture, a poem, a short story,
a business letter, or a love letter, among other possibilities. A spoken
discourse is any act of speech that occurs in a given place and during a given
period of time. A written discourse may be the record of something that has
been spoken, or it may originate for the purpose of being performed aloud, like
a play or speech or it may exist without ever having been spoken or intended to
be spoken, like most articles and books. The linguists’ context of an utterance
can make a difference, as well as the social context.
This
is based on the discourse analysis is an analysis of the language used.
Discourse analysis cannot be limited to the description of the kind of language
that is bound to the purpose or function of which is designed to use the forms
in human affairs. Discussion about the function of language linguistics produce
order terms are vague terms, so that the discussion in this paper has centered
on the function of language as transactional and interactional. Transactional
function is a function of language to express the ‘contents’. Interactional
function of language is a function involved in expressing social relation and
personal attitudes.
B.
Problem
Statement
Based
on the above background, the formulation of the problem which will be discussed
in this paper are:
1. What
is the function of language?
2. What
is the definition spoken and written language?
3. What
is the difference between spoken and written language?
4. What
is the definition of sentence and utterance?
C.
The
Objective
The objective of this
paper is to describes:
1. The
function of language
2. The
definition spoken and written language
3. The
differences between spoken and written language
4. The
definition of sentence and utterance
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
The term roughly discourse, can be
interpreted as the broader language of the sentence or clause or can also be
interpreted as linguistic units larger than sentences, for example spoken or
written text conversations.
Actual discourse analysis, analysis
of language I use, as claimed by Brown and Yule (1984) Discourse Analysis in
his book “The analysis of discourse is necessarily the analysis of language in
use”. Because it was not possible discourse analysis is limited to the
description of linguistic forms apart from human relationships.
Furthermore Butler (1985) adds that
the study of language learning a broader pattern of the sentence (“the
suprasetential patterning of language”). This coincided with the emergence of
interest in learning the language, with the desire to learn what exactly we can
do with language: how we use it, not only to exchange information, but to solve
problems (“getting things done”) and to create and maintain social relations
and others.
The above opinion is actually
derived from the idea of a well-known expert anthropologists Malinowski who was
researching a tribe in the South Pacific, to the conclusion that the meaning is
not a correlation between words with the object designed by the word
(referent). He concluded that in order to understand the meaning of what is said;
we need to know the characteristics of culture as reflected in the context of a
situation in which an utterance is produced. It was later developed by Firth, a
linguistic expert who argued that the meaning of the word is deeply linked to
“the living process of maintaining themselves person in society” (the process
of one”s life to stay afloat in the midest by the Firth of language as follows;
“A way of behaving and making others ehave” ( a way to show certain behaviors
and make other people behave in certain ways). According to Firth thus furher
said by Coulthard (1977) a new language has meaning in the context of a
particular situation (meaningful in its context of situation). An utterance ‘I
am hungry’ may be said a hungry homeless in order to ask an answer to his mother
who told him to instantly command sleep when he was busy watching TV. In the
context of the latter’s speech was clearly intended to gain time, to have a
different meaning with pragmatic spoken in the context of the first one.
A.
The
Function of Language
The analysis of discourse is
necessarily, the analysis of language in use. It cannot be restricted to the
description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or function which
those forms are designed to serve in human affairs. While some linguists may
concentrate on determining the formal properties of a language, the discourse
analyst is committed to an investigation of what that language is used for.
While the formal approach has a long tradition, manifested in innumerable
volumes of grammar, the functional approach is less well documented. Attempts
to provide even a general se of labels for the principal functions of language
have resulted in vague, and often confusing, terminology. We will adopt only
two terms to describe the major functions of language and emphasize that this
division is an analytic convenience. It would be unlikely that, on any
occasion, a natural language utterance would be used to fulfill only one
function, to the total exclusion of the other. That function which language
serves in the expression of ‘content’ we will describe as transactional, and
that function involved expressing social relations and personal attitudes we
will describe as interactional.
a. The
transactional view
Linguists and language philosophy recognizes that
the most important function is the delivery of information. So, Lyons (in
Brown, 1996:2) argues that the notion of communication is easily used to ‘feeling,
moods, and attitudes’. But indicated that he would be interested primarily in
the ‘delivery of factual information or deliberate proportionate.
The language used to convey ‘factual information or
proportionate’ is referred to as the transactional language. Major transactional
language is considered that the main of the reader ( the author) is an
effective information delivery. Language used in situations such as the
‘message oriented’. Important that the speaker (writer) make what the
expression (writing) it clearly. Will occur the consequences are not pleasant (
even catastrophic) in the real world if the message is not understood properly
by the receiver ( Brown, 1996:2).
Based on the opinions expressed by Lyons and Brown
on language functions above, it was explained that the functional of language
in transactional view has a function and its used contained in the message. In
this function the expression (writing) delivered with a straightforward and
effective in accordance with the meaning to e conveyed and does not cause
multiple interpretations of the expression (writing).
b. The
Interactional view
A
large part of everyday human interaction is characterized by the use of
language. If the experts in linguistics, psycholinguistics, and philosophy of
language in general pay attention to the use of language to convey factual
information or proportional, and sociolinguistics sociologists interested in
the use of language to solidified and maintain social relationships. So, pay
attention to the use of conversational language analyzer o negotiate relations
role, the peer solidarity, exchange-trade turn conversation, both face-saving
on the part of the speaker and the listener. For example, there are two people
in a room. One of the men opened the conversation “hot room temperature”. The
speech is not as provision of information, but is intended to be interwoven in
a friendly and comfortable conversation. The example of an interactional
function of language.
Based on the explanation above, it can be summarized
that the function of language according to Brown in the grade into two, namely
the transactional and interactional function. If a speech (written) that to
convey information, then that language serves as transactional function. If a
speech (writing intended to estalish communication / interaction / braggadocio,
the language of the act as interactional language.
Discourse
analysis cannot be separated from the function of language itself. For ease of
analysis, Yule and Brown (1984) limits the two functions of language are:
1. Transactional
functions : the function of language which aims to reveal the content (‘the
expression of content’)
2. Interactional
functions: functions that involve social relationship and attitudes of individuals.
In fact often the two functions work
together. An example, if a mother advising her son, then two earlier language
function go hand in hand, namely the delivery of advice and guidance itself
social relationship with children.
In the transactional language, no
presuppositions that what is on the minds of speakers is the efficient transfer
of information. Language used in this situation-oriented message (message-oriented).
The important thing here is that the person who receives the information it
gets the correct information. So, the goal is clarity provided by an RT to
citizens who ask the gargabe levy, or the clarity provided by a doctor when he
gave instructions to a nurse about giving pills to his patient. By itself will
arise that are not profitable in the transaction problem this information when
such a message is not delivered perfectly understood by the person receiving
the message.
Meanwhile experts’ sociolinguistics
concerned with the use of language to establish and maintains social
relationships. The reason is that the bulk of in-the daily human interaction is
more colored by human relationships. If
there is one between two Indonesian men who do not know each other are waiting
for a train at the station greet others by saying : “Why so late train, Yes” or
if one of the two Americans who are not familiar with sling also said : “ Gee,
it’s freezing “ This does not mean that each of Indonesian people and the
Americans were merely intended to convey
information about rain delay or about the time the cold air, which of course
both parties, both speakers and responders already know each other. Among these
situations contained meaning that speakers want to just be polite and only want
to form social relationships. However in reality, the majority of everyday
conversation is one person’s opinion on what is in fron of him and in front of
his audience.
B.
Spoken
and Written Language
Spoken and in the next written, with a
view to potential applications in language teaching. We have already stated as
our ongoing concern the establishment of as accurate a picture as possible of
natural discourse, in order to have this as a yardstick for judging approaches
to language teaching and for evaluating what goes on in classrooms and the
output of learners.
1. Spoken
language
Henry Guntur Tarin (1987:55) argues that spoken
language was delivered orally, through oral media. Oral or spoken language
often associated with interactive language or interactive language. According
to Brown and Yule (1996) is the interactive discourse.
Variety is the spoken language said the resulting
material tools (organ of speech) with the phoneme as the basic element. In
spoken language, we are dealing with grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. In
this diversity of language spoken, the speaker can take advantage of high or
low sound pressure, facial, hand movements or gestures to express idea.
Spoken language is a vast subject, and little is
known in hard statistical terms of the distribution of different types of
speech in people's everyday lives.
2. Written
Language
Variety of written language is a language generated
by utilizing the letter writing as a basic element. In a variety of writing, we
are dealing with the procedures of writing (spelling) in addition to aspects of
grammar and vocabulary. In other words, in a variety of written language, we
required a complete grammatical element such as form words or sentence
structure, precise word choice, spelling the use of truth, and the use of
punctuation in expressing ideas.
Text
types
Letters are a
good example of a discourse type where the receiver is usually a specified
individual or group, unlike the classroom or homework essay, which is often
written for an unknown audience, but
with the overlay of knowing that the teacher lexarniner will be the
pseudo-reader. Letter writing activities can therefore raise all the important
questions of the relationship between discourse structure and contextual
factors, as we have seen. There also appear to be cross-cultural problems
concerning letters, especially business letters. Jenkins and Hinds (1987) found
significant differences in orientation between American, French and Japanese
business letters; the American letters in their data were generally more
informal and reader-oriented, with the writer strongly projecting the reader's
needs and assumed purposes. The French data were writer-oriented, with the
writer intent upon protecting hidher position and remaining more formal. The Japanese
texts oriented towards the mid-ground, the relationship between writer and
reader. So writing is not fundamentally different from speech. While it is true
that the writer usually has time to compose and think, and is not going to be
interrupted by the reader bidding for a turn or saying 'SorQ, can't stop now,
must rush!', all the other important factors constraining what is said and how
it is said are present in writing as much as in speech.
The sentence is more obvious as a grammatical unit
in writing, although certainly not in all kinds of writing: signs and notices,
small ads, notes, forms, tickets, cheques, all contain frequent examples of
'non-sentences' (lists of single words, verb less clauses, etc.)
Two medium or substance in the human language used a
medium of communication is disturbed by air movement and articulation marks
made on a flat surface with a chisel, brush, pen, pencil and so on. Beyond this
linguistic communication both ways, ie verbal and written.
Language known in Europe, but not all dialects, and
the main areas in the world who has known civilization was writing and oral
language. In other words, the system of writing and oral language can be
identified and recognized as the “common language”. Many language are spoken
only just know the system and the spread of literacy does not always lead to
all languages that have writing systems. Spoken language used by a relatively
small community, who live in a political group or culture group larger, often
avoided. This is because the speakers are taught to read and write in the
language of wider use in the area as the language of the “second” or in the
language learned in school and not being taught to them since childhood ( as is
the case with many non standard dialect speakers of the language.
3. Write
a word on the use of language and spoken language (spoken)
In the use of both written and spoken language is
not the same, this is because the use of written and spoken language has rules
of its own-alone in the use of words, vocabulary and sentence structure. Note
the use of written and spoken language below:
a. Written
language
Use of tenses
1. Vehicle
that he was travelling hit a mahagony tree
2. If
cannot, you do not need to continue the work
3. Copy
of certificate must be legalized first by academic leaders
Use
of vocabulary
1. I
already know their members about it
2. They
were making plans for the next exhibition
Use
of sentence structure
1. I
have to say this plan to the Director
2. “Skilled
Sharpening” was attended also by the Governor of the special region of Aceh
3. Because
too many different suggestions, it gets confused to finis the job.
b. Spoken
language
Use of tenses
1. Vehicle
that he was travelling hit a mahogany tee
2. If
cannot, no need to continue the work
3. Photocopy
of diploma must be legalized by academic leaders
Use
of vocabulary
1. I
already know they love about it
2. They
make a plan to exhibit again ever.
Use
of sentence structure
1. I
have to convey this plan to the Director
2. In
“Sharpening Empowered” was atendded by the Governor of the special region of
Aceh
3. Beause
too many different suggestionns, so he more confused to finish the job.
C.
Differences
Between Writing and Speech
In 1979 Halliday (114) wrote that
“spoken language is characterized by complex sentence structures with low
lexical density (more clauses, but fewer high content words per clause);
written language by simple sentence structures with high lexical density (more
high content words per clause, but fewer clauses).” These somewhat surprising conclusions seem
not to have arisen from a systematic quantitative study of spoken and written
samples, but from isolated examples.
Writing and spoken language differ in
many ways. However some forms of writing are closer to speech than others, and
vice versa. Below are some of the ways in which these two forms of language differ:
·
Writing is usually permanent and written
texts cannot usually e changed once they have been printed or written out
Speech
is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and
change their utterance as they go along
·
A written text can communicate across
time and space for as long as the particular language and writing system is
still understood.
Speech
is usually used for immediate interactions
·
Written language tends to be more
complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate
clauses. The punctuation and layout of written texts also have no spoken
equivalent. However, some forms of written language, such as instant messages
and email, are closer to spoken language.
Spoken
language tends to a full of repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and
interruptions, with the exception of formal speeches and other scripted forms
of speech, such as new reports and scripts for plays and films.
·
Written receive no immediate feedback
from their readers, except in computer-based communication. Therefore they
cannot rely on context to clarify things so there is more need to explain
things clearly and unambiguously than in speech, except in written correspondence
between people who know one another well.
Speech
is usually a dynamic interaction between two or more people. Context shared
knowledge play a major role, so it is possible to leave much unsaid or
indirectly implied.
·
Writes can make use of punctuation,
headings, layout colours and other graphical effects in their written texts.
Such things are not available in speech.
Speech
can use timing, tone, volume, and timbre to add emotional context.
·
Written material can be read repeatedly
and closely analyzed, and notes can be made on the writing surface. Only
recorded speech can be used in this way.
·
Some grammatical constructions are only
used in writing, as are some kinds of vocabulary, such as some complex chemical
and legal terms.
Some
types of vocabulary are used only or mainly in speech. These include slang
expressions, and tags like y’know, like
etc.
An utterance can be defined simply as a section of
spoken language, separated by pauses or silence. The specific definition of the
term is hard to pin down, because some people believe it to relate to an entire
spoken “turn” in conversation, while others believe the definition to be more
episodic, almost the equivalent of sentences for spoken English. Regardless of
the preferred definition, an utterance can be generally defined as a chunk of
spoken language.
Spoken language and written language are different
in many ways. The main reason for this is that spoken language is usually
generated on the spot by the speaker, which means that there are frequent
pauses while the speaker thinks of how to continue. These pauses are often
filled with filler words such as “like” or “err….” Or silence. Conversely,
written language only has grammatical pauses, such as a period or comma, to
dictate when a pause should be taken. As a result of this difference, in
written language, a sentencce can easily be defined as the words between the
capital letter and period, but I speech, the definition is much more difficult.
D.
Sentence
and Utterance
The
sentence is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal
communicative unit, has its primary predication, actualizes define structural
scheme, possesses definite intonation characters.
The sentence is an abstract
theoretical entity, and a unit language. The most essential features of the
sentence as a linguistic unit are:
a. Its
structural characteristic – subject – predicate relation (primary predication)
b. Its
semantic characteristic – it refers to some fact in the objective reality.
A
simple sentence is a sentence with one predicate line. All simple sentence are dividing
into
a. Two
– axis constructions
b. One
– axis constructions
Utterance is a complete unit of speech (what
one speaker says). In other word, utterance is the act of expressing word (something
that you say). We use term utterance to refer to complete communicative units,
which may consist of single words, phrases, clause or clauses, combination
spoken in context, in contrast to the term sentence which we reserve for unit
consisting of at least one.
Intrinsically in activity communicate
happened process to produce and comprehends utterance. In other word, in linguistic
usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become
mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept become code,
while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance, there are
at least three factors which assist us the first is factors to relate to
knowledge of the world as member of society, we have coexisted with our
environment. Nature around this gives to us knowledge about world life. Some of
this knowledge have the character of universal while some other is special
about public where life. Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after
utterance was understood or is continued with an action. If we to hear
utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued, so in generally
we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND
SUGGESTION
A.
Conclusion
A
wide variety of language spoken and written language can be distinguished by
see how to write it. If in our daily life, the variety of writing needs to pay
attention to language support the rules in writing are good and true, whereas
in a variety of oral language support is not necessary. Clearly spoken language
variety is something that delivered orally, whereas written language variety is
something that conveyed through writing, the function of language
B.
Suggestion
As we know that
variety of language by the media is divided into two : a variety of oral and
written language and we as a younger generation of Indonesian people should be
to tell the difference, know the function of language, and sentence and
utterance
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Brown,
Gillian and George Yule. 1996. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Brown,
Gillian and George Yule. 1996. Analisis Wacana. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Butler,
Christopher,S.1985.systemic Linguistic Theory and applications. London:
Batsford Ltd
Mccarthy,
Michael.1991.Discourse Analysis For language Teachers. Cambridge; Cabridge
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